Labelling Theory by Becker: Summary and Evaluation

Labelling Theory by Becker: Summary and Evaluation Part of the assumption about the way policing and the law works is that punishing criminal behaviour has a deterrent effect. Whatever controversies surround the efficacy of deterrence and they are myriad it seemed hard for many early theorists to believe that punishing criminal behaviour does any actual harm to society. What labelling theorists introduced was the idea that, ironically, the singling out of those who had transgressed societys laws actually perpetuated the behaviours it was intended to curb (Lilly, Cullen Ball, 2002). The idea that the way in which crimes are socially constructed might have important consequences has, however, proved controversial and sparked considerable debate. This essay looks first at labelling theory and then moves on to examine the theory more critically and assess its reach in explaining crime and deviance. Becker (1973) clearly lays out labelling theory in his book Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. He explains that the interactionist perspective sees crime as an infraction of the rules created by society. It then seeks to find the reasons that a person infringed those rules within both their personality and in the their social and economic environment. Becker (1973) believed that this placed the wrong emphasis on where the parameters for crime are set. It is not in the quality of a persons action the deviant act or, as it were, a deviant person but rather in the imposition of the label of deviance by society. It is society that prescribes which acts are lawful and which acts are not lawful and, that act of successfully applying the label illegal or deviant to a person, has a number of important consequences. One assumption often made, once a person has been labelled a deviant, is that they fit into a homogenous category. Becker (1973) argues that this assumption is often made by researchers in criminology looking for a root cause or at least some commonality in deviance and crime. This assumption, though, is not correct. Some people may not have transgressed societys laws and yet are, through the failure of the appropriate systems, still labelled deviant. Others may have transgressed but have not been caught in their transgression these people remain unlabelled. As a result of this analysis, Becker (1973) is most interested in how people come to be labelled deviant rather than their particular social or personal circumstances. This attack on the absolutist nature of deviance or criminal behaviour highlights a number of variables within the system of labelling. What is labelled a crime varies from one time to another; at one time there is crackdown on, for example, drug offences, and the investigation and penalties are stepped up. At another time there may be much more leniency. Another variable is the nature of the person caught breaking the law. The example is drawn by Becker (1973) of the difference between a middle class person and someone from the lower classes evidence is cited to show that it is the middle class person who is more likely to avoid prosecution. Similarly, crimes committed by individuals tend to be prosecuted by the criminal law, while crimes committed by corporations prosecuted by the civil law. These distinctions emphasise the fact that criminality is not an independent quality of a person, but is intimately related to other peoples perceptions or, alternatively in the modern termin ology, to crimes social construction. After the initial instance in which a person is labelled as a criminal, Becker (1973) asserts that a number of things are naturally attendant. To understand the results of labelling it is useful to make a distinction introduced by Edwin Lemert. Lemert (1951) introduced the idea that deviance could be seen as first primary and then secondary. Primary deviancy refers to the situation where a person commits a criminal offence because of sociocultural and psychological circumstances. At this stage, however, the person does not see themselves as deviant, merely as a person who has temporarily strayed from the straight and narrow. Having been caught committing a criminal offence this person is then subjected to societys vilification and labelling through the criminal justice system. As a result of this the person then has to find a method of dealing with this clash between the way they think about themselves and the way other people now view them. This is normally dealt with by accepting t he label with all its meaning and consequences attached. Lilly, Cullen Ball (2002) explain that labelling theorists used the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy (developed by Merton, 1968) to explain the effect of labelling. Falsely applying the label of criminal to a person leads to them being seen as morally reprehensible in themselves, even though, at that point, this is probably not true. In peoples minds, the fact that a person has committed a criminal offence leads to them being thought of as a criminal, which again leads to them being seen exclusively in this context, above any other. The police, seeing that person as more likely to transgress in the future, will be more likely to visit them to investigate further crimes. A person is socially isolated from their non-criminal friends and probably incarcerated with others who have been labelled criminals this all serves to reinforce the label. It is this constant pressure from people around them that encourages those who have committed a criminal offence to accept the label of crimin al themselves along with all that it entails. The effect is that, perversely, that crime is perpetuated because of the effectiveness of the systems of criminal justice: the label of criminal becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy (Williams, 2004). Labelling theory has been criticised on a number of grounds. Many researchers have attempted to bring empirical evidence to bear on labelling theory. Gove (1975), for example, found no evidence of the influence of negative sanctions on sustained criminal careers. Sherman Berk (1984) compared, in a field experiment, those who had been arrested for domestic violence, with those who had not. They found that those who had been arrested did, in fact, show a reduced level of violence compared to those who had not. Foster, Dinitz Reckless (1972) found that self-reports of problems amongst apprehended boys did not affect the relationship between deviance and sanctions. Other evidence, however, has supported the contentions of labelling theory. Kaplan Johnson (2001) describe some of this evidence. Palamara, Cullen Gersten (1986) found that juvenile delinquency was affected both directly and through other interactions by contact with the police, as well as mental health services. Important ly, the level of the effect was found to be different depending on the type of behaviour that was being measured. Kaplan Johnson (2001) assert that part of the explanation for the mixed empirical results may be methodological problems. For example, measuring levels of delinquency before and after intervention by the criminal justice system is extremely problematic. Kaplan Johnson (2001) argue that, in the research carried out by Foster et al. (1972), it is possible the boys were trying to protect their self-image which was why they didnt report any problems to researchers. Similarly, though, the results of Palamara et al. (1986), which relied on the opinions of mothers and teachers, might simply reflect the effects that labelling has on labelling obviously a circular argument. Gove (1975) argues that part of the problem with testing labelling theory is that it is simply untestable in many of the ways that researchers have applied. Aside from empirical evidence, researchers have also criticised labelling theory on theoretical grounds. Gove (1975) argues that there is no solid evidence that being labelled and then committing crimes is a self-fulfilling prophecy. In addition, Gove (1975) criticises labelling theory on the grounds that it is has difficulty explaining all the different types of deviant behaviour. Plummer (1979) characterises this as a problem with explaining how primary deviance occurs in the first place. Labelling theory, therefore, has a particular problem with paedophilia, for example, which is generally thought to result from abnormal psychology. For this reason it cannot be largely affected by labelling and self-fulfilling prophecies. More phenomenological problems are pointed to in labelling theory by, amongst others, Philipson Roche (1971). They point out that labelling theory makes many perhaps unwarranted assumptions. The way that society reacts to the labelling of criminals is mostly assumed by the original researchers, and hardly investigated. Theoretically, there is limited linkage between the processes that occur at an everyday level and how these translate into the societal reaction. There is too much reliance on ideas that are deemed common sense and also on anecdotal evidence. Plummer (1979) states that labelling theory tends to minimise, or not to address, the question of power and the effects this has on the criminal justice system. A more general criticism is its compatibility with social determinism, the idea that people may have no choice, or at least little choice, in their behaviour. These ideas are also linked to moral criticisms, that labelling theory excludes the moral aspects of crime choos ing to commit a criminal act is a moral choice. In defence of labelling theory, and the criticisms that have been levelled at it, Becker (1973) ascribes a more limited role to its applicability. Becker (1973) argues that labelling theory was not intended to explain why people commit crimes, but the focus of it is on the interactional elements. It is the interactional elements in explaining crime that had previously been ignored or minimised labelling theory was an attempt to highlight the fact that crime cannot be explained without considering the effects that people have on each other. It is clear that many criticisms of labelling theory are based on different conceptions. Indeed, modern theorists now often see labelling theory as split into three different parts. Davies Tanner (2003) splits it into the strain that concentrates on secondary deviance, the strain that focuses on social psychological effects and, finally, the strain that examines the effect of labelling on life chances. In conclusion, what many proponent of labelling theory claim is that it attempts to demystify acts of crime and deviancy. Rather than seeing them as discrete and recognisable categories that are somehow other from the normal law-abiding citizens, it sees them as part of a fluid process within which all members of society, or a collective, exert some influence. It acknowledges a continuum and attempts to describe the processes involved in moving along that continuum. Critics of labelling theory have attacked with both theoretical arguments and empirical evidence. As can clearly be seen, though, labelling theory is difficult to test empirically and, perhaps, with the defence provided by Becker (1973) is impossible to test this way. Criticisms of theoretical aspects are somewhat muddied by different understandings of what labelling theory constitutes. Despite this, it is possible that more detailed and precise research could provide a clearer empirical result whether positive or negati ve. References References Becker, H. S. (1973) Outsiders: studies in the sociology of deviance. New York: Free Press. Davies, S., Tanner, J. (2003) The Long Arm of the Law: Effects of Labeling on Employment. The Sociological Quarterly, 44(3) 385–404. Philipson, M., Roche, M. R. (1971) Phenomenology, Sociology and the Study of Deviance. In Carson, W.G., Wiles, P. (Eds.) The Sociology of Crime and Delinquency in Britain, vol 2. Oxford: Martin Robertson. Foster, J. D., Dinitz, S., Reckless, W. C. (1972) Perceptions of stigma following  public intervention for delinquent behavior. Social Problems, 20, 202-209 Gove, W. R. (1975). The labeling of deviance: Evaluating a perspective. New York: Halsted Press. Kaplan, H. B., Johnson, R. J. (2001) Social Deviance: Testing a General Theory. New York: Springer. Plummer, K. (1979) Misunderstanding Labelling Perspectives. In Downes, D. Rock, P. (Eds.) Deviant Interpretations: problems in criminological theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press Lemert, E. (1951) Social pathology: A systematic approach to the theory of  sociopathic behavior. New York McGraw-Hill. Lilly, J., Cullen, F., Ball, R. (2002) Criminological theory: Context and consequences (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Merton, R. K. (1968) Social theory and social structure. New York: Free Press. Palamara, F., Cullen, F. T., Gersten, J. C. (1986). The effect of police and mental  health intervention on juvenile deviance: Specifying contingencies in the impact of formal reaction. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 90-105. Sherman, L. W., Berk, R. A. (1984) The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261-272. Williams, K. S. (2004) Textbook on Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Inter Professional Collaboration In Practice

Inter Professional Collaboration In Practice Inter-professional Education (IPE) occurs when two or more professions learn together with the object of cultivating collaborative practice (CAIPE 2002). The benefits, as purported by (Barr 2002) are to have mutual understanding and respect, broadminded attitudes and perceptions and minimised stereotypical thinking. This thinking is informed by the legislative policy requirements of health and social care agencies to work closely and collaboratively together with service user along with professional guidelines (DH 2006, GSCC 2008, and QAA 2008). Communicating with other health and social care professionals, understanding contrasting perspectives, being involved in the seminars, groupwork trigger exercises, and IPE literature has enhanced my learning at the conference and has informed my practice for the future. The module began with introductions and the team members each described their professional roles. (Dombeck 1997) refers to the importance of knowing your own professional identity and that of others before you are able to be able to form useful IP relationships. As students there was an initial understanding of each of our own professional roles and this was enhanced by discussion. Through this social process of learning we were able to correct each others bias and assumptions. The multidisciplinary group was not universal in its wish to achieve as much from the course as possible; this became understandable later, when it was clarified that the course did not form part of the medical degree qualification. A sense of inequality developed, which led the group to question the value placed on IPE within the medical profession. (Stapleton 1998) refers to open and honest and equal participation being conducive to collaborative relationships between professions. Despite this perceived ineq uality the group functioned well together. Open and honest discussions ensued although any interactions were superficial given the duration of the conference. Contact was sparse following the conference and there was little use of the IT systems placed on blackboard to assist or cement further learning. Professor Means (2010) presentation resonated with me, as he spoke of championing ones own values and ethics, whilst seeing different perspectives and challenging boundaries of roles. He viewed this to be achievable with positive interactions and collaborations and engendering mutual trust and support. This led me to reflect on the nature of this discussion and contribute to the completion of one of our sentences. Challenging professional boundaries creatively, whilst advocating ones own professions values and ethics. Pecukonis et al (2008) state that ethics relate to the pursuit of human betterment but these can be viewed and interpreted by different professions and refers to the term profession-centrism.This was underpinned by discussion within the group of the crossover in roles occurring within health and social care for example occupational therapist carrying out some of the duties of nurses and vice versa, whilst also being the eyes and ears for social workers. This caused me t o consider that social work is done by many professionals and its boundaries are not clear. This, whilst confusing, can lead to more professional fulfilment within roles and lead to a stronger skill mix which, with the service user at the centre, will lead to a better service and resource savings. Social, political and economic elements would welcome this cross over of skills however there is a possibility of a devaluing the value of each profession. (Barr 2004) supports this view and discusses the new flexible worker giving patients a holistic approach but also advocates respect for specialisms within teams. The upgrading of responsibility and specialisation of medical tasks to nurses previously in the Doctors domain was discussed and there was a consensus within the group that this was a positive experience as it valued knowledge and not hierarchical structures of power. (Baker et al 2006) discusses the modernisation of healthcare and the move towards a team based model of healthcare delivery. Power has traditionally been sanctioned through authority and has in general been located within the medical profession (Colyer 2004) advises that the last fifteen years have seen a sea change in the medical professions organisation, structure and agency and this has improved the quality of intervention to service users. The seminar on Intermediate Care by Williams and Drake (2010) increased my knowledge of how the multidisciplinary teams within the Community Health Team and Bristol City Council work together to provide holistic, flexible and client centred services with a single point of access. This occurs despite different IT, communication and reward systems and the challenges for the future viewed as aligning the organisational aims and objectives, recording systems, and professional views to transform consistency, capacity and efficiency. This enabled me to understand the daily pressures of working between organisations and the further challenges that present themselves with the current political and financial changes currently affecting the NHS and how the stereotyping of roles and their responsibilities are changing as are service user involvement. The terms service user, patient and client were debated by the group and the subtle ways that language inform the discourse. Service user as a term was decided upon as it was the least discriminatory although consensus was not possible and the problematic nature of labels was explored both for service users and carers (Thomas 2010 p.172-3). The National Occupational Standards of Social Work (2006) set out the values and ethics of service users and carers and the importance of inclusion. The carer in the patients voices video who expressed her lack of recognition of being an expert by experience demonstrated the gaps that as (Payne 2000) defines as the difference between professionals in collaborative working detracting from the empowerment and involvement of people who use services. Service users and carers should have a place in the decision making process. I was able to appreciate the seminar provide by Adams (2010) which challenged my perception of being different but being compatible with others. Analogies were used of chalk and cheese and peas in a pod; the same components but different .This challenged my own conscious and unconscious views of my own profession and that of others, and the stereotypes that I hold and internalise. In order to combat these feelings I felt a need to have a clear sense of my own identity, confidence, role boundaries, values and ethics and practice and knowledge standards. I questioned my own perceived identity and that of my profession and recognised my own attempts to try to overcome perceived stereotypes and how issues of power and oppression require consideration before action, (Dalrymple and Burke 2006). A discussion ensued regarding conflicts of interest between professionals and I was able to make the links between theory and practice. (White and Featherstone 2005 p.210) explores the idea of story telling about different professions or professional groups and how atrocity stories allows one profession to scapegoat another but how stories can also strengthen and confirm identity, by questioning other professions and thereby strengthening ones own. (Barnes et al., 2000) state that by developing ones own knowledge base and othering of different professions whether rooted in the medical or social models allows different perspectives to be heard and recognised. (Lukes 1974) discusses these views of power and the subtle way that power is exercised and how people can remain powerless and this how service users are viewed within IP practice. The Childrens Act 1989 and Every Child Matters 2006 are all resulting from the failures within public services to protect children. In reality IPW continues to fail. The Bristol Royal Infirmary (2001) Victoria Climbie Inquiry Lord Laming(2003) and more recent news on the serious case review of Baby P (2009) and the ongoing Mid Staffordshire NHS Trust Inquiry (2010) have highlighted serious breakdowns in multi-agency working and communication. The subsequent media reports have shown increased public mistrust and increased accountability for professionals Davies et al (1999) states that trust is an asset and that its reduction may hamper institutions ability to function. Words 1305 Section 2 Discuss how you would take what you have learnt about IP working into practice? Effective IP working (IPW) involves performing within practice situations of cohesion and disparity. Working collaboratively with other social and health care professionals has experientially helped me to reaffirm and develop my practice. I have gained experience in communicating effectively, understanding teamwork, exploring stereotypes and professional identity and how social, economic and political factors will affect my future practice. As a social work (SW) student working within an education and child protection setting, I understand the need to ensure a holistic and safe care provision in order to protect vulnerable children and adults. The Victoria Climbie Inquiry (Laming, 2003) pointed to the failure of various professions in their ability to work together in a competent and unified way. The Laming report led to the change in social workers National Occupational Standards and focussed on the need to develop clear documented communication, sharing all aspects with all relevant professionals to avoid any ambiguity and uncertainty within teams. (Laming, 2009. p. 61) emphasises that: there is a clear need for a determined focus on improvement of practice in child protection across all the agencies . . . I will describe a child protection team meeting and its wider lessons for my practice. Whilst on placement I met a young girl, whos younger brother was subject to a child protection investigation. Her mother had limited English and her father was the alleged abuser. The investigation involved a child protection meeting involving a plethora of health and social care professions to jointly assess the risk to both children. The meeting was effectively chaired by a social worker and all were invited to contribute their specific knowledge and evidence on the family, opinion was sought on actions and timeframes.(Molyneux 2001) debates the issue of good teamwork as being dependant on the qualities of the staff and the need for there to be no one dominant force. By communication being inclusive, creative and regular, issues can be debated and resolved. Concluding that teams were successful when members were confident, motivated and flexible and communication channels were clear, frequent and in the same base. (Petrie 1976) discusses a cognitive map where two opposing disciplin arians can look at the same thing but not see the same thing. My experience of working within this multi-disciplinary team was positive with all professionals having a voice. However on reflection and through IPW I am now more aware of the perspectives of others and the need to define and develop my professional identity. (Bell Allain 2010 p.10) in their pedagogic study allude to SW students being reverential to medical expertise and giving low ratings on their own abilities of leadership. I feel a dichotomy exists between SW railing against the medical model and promoting the social model whilst deferring to the stereotypes of professionalism within health and social care. For the future I need to be aware of stereotypes and continue to develop my critical reflection of both my personal and professional self whilst developing my abilities to be heard within multiprofessional teams. As a SW student, I am aware that there exists a blurring of edges of what the SW role entails and how the identity of the role may change in the future. (Payne2006) refers to a social worker working within a mental health practitioners team which included working alongside nurses and psychologists including high levels of therapy based work, which would not usually sit within social work practice and therefore ones professional identity could be lost. (Lymbury Butler 2004) state that whilst it is important to share knowledge with other professionals that are allied to social work it is imperative that the identity of ones own profession is preserved. (Laidler 1991) further addresses the issues of crossing professional boundaries describing them as professional adulthood. That IP jealousy and conflicts will arise to the detriment of the team members and more importantly to the service user. Power as exercised may cause some to struggle as power is shared and fluctuates in accordance with whose knowledge and expertise best suits the service user. Envy as discussed by (Schein 2004) identifies ways in which it can stand in the way of good IP learning by creating a collective unconscious resulting in; an attack on colleagues, an attack on learning and failing to learn from each other and or authority figures, and issues of who takes responsibility. Within the Child Protection meeting the chair was a senior SW who co-ordinated the professionals and this caused me to reflect on my abilities, as SWs must deliver safe high quality care but given limited resources , different professional groups will have different priorities and see issues differently. Sellman (2010) concludes that you need to be willing , have trust in others and have effective leadership either acting with your inclinations or action that affords the best outcome however, personal , professional and structural influences can encourage or discourage practitioners. I recognised that for the future I ne eded to increase my ability to create a dialogue across difference whilst holding on to the dignity and responsibility of every person. (Skaerbaek 2010) purports that by listening to the minority one is able to see the practices that underlie the agenda of the majority. However the future blurring of health and welfare provision is changing across all sectors. The role of the private sector in the provision of health and welfare practice can provide competitive market forces to drive up the standards and offer greater choice to individuals through direct payments. This in turn can create greater service user autonomy and much more creative solutions. However this can also lead to inequality and a perception that the services are driven by profit bringing the ethical motivation of private sector into question and a blurring of the duties of the state to the service user. (Field and Peck 2003) conclude that the culture of the private and public sector will need to merge and this will result in challenges within roles and organisations. The voluntary sector is one of the fastest growing with voluntary organisations, who, when commissioned, are more accessible to service users and people are more likely to engage with them. They have more freedom acting as advocates and campaigners and are less regulated through targets (Pollard et al 2010). However given the current economic climate and the recently announced budget cuts (Rickets 2010) suggests that the pressure on the voluntary sector to provide more services will continue and if the state retreats from providing services, the voluntary and community sector will fill the gap. Personalisation in which services are tailored to the needs and preferences of citizens is the overall government vision: that the state should empower citizens to shape their own lives and the services they receive. Liberating the NHS 2010 (p3 4) states that We will put patients at the heart of the NHS, through an information revolution and greater choice and control: a. Shared decision making will become the norm: no decision about me without me and The Government will devolve power and responsibility for commissioning services to the healthcare professionals closest to patients: GPs and their practice t eams working in consortia.(Foreman 2008) sees the need to involve IT in helping to improve and reduce the barriers to IPW. The structures of IPW will continue to evolve and change with complexity and ideological thinking however I need to engage with other professionals and service users in a person centred way. In conclusion, the IPW conference, literature and subsequent research have clarified my future need to be flexible in both my role and that of others and the primacy of the service user at the centre of my practice. Teams and service users are diverse, comprised of people of different ages, from different social and cultural backgrounds with different expectations. (Carnwell et al 2005 p.56) relates collaboration to embracing diversity and moving away from the comfortable assumption that there is only one way to see the world , providing strategies : learn from each other, embrace IP working, and adopt a value position where anti discriminatory practice is central. By critically reflecting on practice I must embrace a degree of uncertainty and unpredictability as a necessary part of the complex micro and macro systems of IPW. Words 1374 SECTION 3 REFERENCES Adams, K. (2010) What is Interprofessional Education? UWE Bristol, IPE Level 2 Conference. Baker, D. Day, R. Salas, E. (2006) Teamwork as an essential component of high reliability organizations. Health Services Research 41(4) pp 1576-98. Barnes, D., Carpenter, J. Dickinson, C. (2000) Inter-professional education for community mental health: attitudes to community care and professional stereotypes, Social Work Education. Vol 19 (6), pp. 565-583. Haringey Safeguarding Children Board Serious Case Review: Baby Peter Executive Summary (2009).[online] Available from: http://www.haringeylscb.org/executive_summary_peter_final.pdf [Accessed 22 November 2010] Barr ,H. (2002) Interprofessional Education Today, Yesterday and Tomorrow: A Review. LTSN HS P: London. Barr, H., Freeth, D., Hammick, M., Koppel, I. Reeves, S. (2000) Evaluations of Interprofessional Education: A United Kingdom Review for Health and Social Care. CAIPE/BERA: London. Bell, L. and Allain, L. (2010) Exploring Professional Stereotypes and Learning for Interprofessional Practice: An Example from UK Qualifying Level. Social Work Education. Vol 1 pp1 -15 Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry HM Government (2001) Learning from Bristol: the report of the public inquiry into childrens heart surgery at the Bristol Royal Infirmary 1984 -1995. London: HMSO [online] Available from: http://www.bristol-inquiry.org.uk/final_report/report/index.htm [Accessed 16 November 2010] Carnwell, R. Buchanan, J. (2005) Effective Practice in Health Social Care: A partnership Approach. Berkshire: Open University Press CAIPE (2002) [online] Available from : http://www.caipe.org.uk/about-us/defining-ipe/ [Accessed 8 November 2010] Childrens Act (1989) [online] Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/41/contents [Accessed 10 November 2010] Colyer, H. (2004) The construction and development of health professions: where will it end? Journal of Advanced Nursing Vol 48, (4), pp. 408-412 Dalrymple, J. and Burke, B. (2006) Anti-oppressive Practice, Social Care and the Law (2nd edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press Davies, H. Shields, A. (1999) Public trust and accountability for clinical performance; lessons from the national press reportage of the Bristol hearing. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical practice. Vol 5,(3) pp. 335-342. Department of Health (DH) (2006) Options for Excellence- Building the Social care Workforce of the future TSO: London Dombeck, M. (1997) Professional personhood:training, territoriality and tolerance. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 11 pp. 9-21. Field, J Peck, E. (2003) Public-private partnerships in healthcare: the managers perspective. Health and Social Care in the Community. Vol 11 pp.494-501 Foreman, D. (2008) Using technology to overcome some traditional barriers to effective clinical interprofessional learning. Journal of Interprofessional Care, Vol 22(2) pp.209-211. General Social Care Council (2008) Social Work at its Best: A Statement of Social Work Roles and Tasks for the 21st Century [online]. Available at http://www.gscc.org.uk [Accessed 18 November 2010] HM Government (2004) Every Child Matters: Change for Children 2004. London: HMSO [online] Available from: http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/acts2004/ukpga_20040031_en_1 [Accessed 19 November 2010] HM Government (2010) Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS. London: HMSO [online] Available from: http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/@ps/documents/digitalasset/dh_117794.pdf [Accessed 19 November 2010] Haringey Safeguarding Children Board Serious Case Review: Baby Peter Executive Summary (2009).[online] Available from: http://www.haringeylscb.org/executive_summary_peter_final.pdf [Accessed 22 November 2010] Keeping, C. Barratt, G. 2009 Interprofessional Practice cited in Glasby, J Dickenson H (2009) International Perspectives on Health and Social Care Oxford Wiley- Blackwell. Laidler, P. (1991) Adults, and how to become one. Therapy Weekly. Vol 17 (35) p4. Laming, Lord (2003) The Victoria Climbie Inquiry. Stationery Office, London Laming, Lord (2009) The Protection of Children in England: A Progress Report. Stationery Office: London Lukes, S. (1974) Power: A Radical View Basingstoke: Macmillan Lymbury, M. and Butler, S. (2004) Social work ideals and practice realities. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Means, R. (2010) Why Inter-professional Working Matters: From Theory To Practice UWE Bristol, IPE Level 2 Conference. Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust Public Inquiry (2010) [online] Available from: http://www.midstaffspublicinquiry.com/ [Accessed 22 November 2010] Molyneux J (2001) Interprofessional teamworking: what makes teams work well? Journal of Interprofessional Care. 15,(1), pp.338-346 Payne, M. (2006) What is professional social work? Bristol: Polity Press Pecukonis E, Doyle O, Bliss DL (2008) Reducing barriers to interprofessional training: promoting interprofessional cultural competence. Journal of Interprofessional Care Vol 22 pp.417-28 Petrie, H . G. (1976) Do you see what I see? The epistemology of interdisciplinary inquiry. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 10, 29 43. Pollard, K. Thomas, J. and Miers, M. (2010) Understanding Interprofessional Working in Health and Social Care. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) (2008) Social Work Benchmark Statements [online]. Available at: http://qaa.ac.uk/academicinfrastructure/benchmark/statements/socialwork08.asp. [Accessed 15 November 2010] Rickets, A. (2010) Budget will place major burden on charities. Third Sector [online] Available at: http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/News/DailyBulletin/1011592/Budget-will-place-major-burden-charities-umbrella-bodies- [Accessed 20 November 2010] Schein, E. (2004) Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sellman D. (2010) Values and Ethics in Interprofessional Working In Pollard K. Thomas J, Miers, M.(eds) (2010) Understanding Interprofessional Working in Health and Social Care Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan Skaerbaek, E. (2010) Undressing the Emperor? On the ethical dilemmas of heirarchical knowledge Journal of Interprofessional Care, September2010; 24(5) : 579-586 Skills for Care (2006) National Occupational Standards for Social Work. [online]. Available at: http://www.skillsforcare.org.uk (Accessed 19 November 2010). Stapleton, S. (1998) Team-building: making collaborative practice work. Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 43(1), pp12-18 Thomas, J (2010) Service Users, Carers and Issues for Collaborative Practice cited in Pollard, K, Thomas, J and Miers, M. Understanding Interprofessional Working in Health and Social Car Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. White, S. Featherstone, B. (2005) Communicating misunderstandings: multi-agency work as social practice, Child and Family Social Work, Vol. 10, pp. 207-216 Williams, V. and Drake, S. (2010) Intermediate Care (IMCS) Bridging the Gap Facilitated Discharge. UWE Bristol, IPE Level 2 Conference. SECTION 4 APPENDIX- 6 AGREED GROUP SENTENCES Theme 1: Communication issues between Health and Social Care professionals Clear and concise communication is key to a well co-ordinated transfer within health and social care services. Health and Social care professionals need to recognise the importance of maintaining privacy, dignity and respect when communicating in the presence of service users. Theme 2: Contrasting professional perspectives/ values within teams. Recognise the importance of valuing each health and social care professions perspective. Challenging professional boundaries creatively whilst advocating ones own professions values and ethics. Theme 3: Stereotyping, power imbalances and team processes Positive attitudes to working with other health and social care professionals in a real world environment with the patient/service user at the centre of planning and documenting is necessary to reduce power imbalances. Recognise and embrace differences to minimise stereotypical views within health and social care.

Natural Technology Essay -- Inventing Technology Writing Essays

Natural Technology With all the technological advancements and ingenious inventions our culture and world have been introduced to, it is difficult to remove ourselves from what we are accustomed to and what our expectations are of technology, in order to dwell on what technology really is. Technology, to many, may be any appliance that uses a battery or has to be plugged into an outlet in the wall in order to work. When a person thinks of writing technology, similar thoughts may take place. Society has become comfortable with the great technology that is part of our every day lives, such as the computer or a palm pilot, we tend to forget what came first. It is quite easy to understand why Socrates and others throughout history believed writing would be detrimental to society and the human mind. From Socrates’ â€Å"Phaedrus†, he argues against the idea of using writing, â€Å"†¦for this discovery of yours will create forgetfulness in the learners’ souls, because they will not use their memories; they will trust to the external written characters and not remember of themselves.† (Tribble/Trubek, 362) After all, we experience the same arguments even today as new technologies enter our world and become part of our lives. Writing technology, like anything else, has evolved over time. Mark Twain writes of his experience of being introduced to the typewriter, â€Å"At the beginning of the interval a type-machine was a curiosity. The person who owned one was a curiosity, too. But now it is the other way about: the person who DOESN’T own one is a curiosity.† (Tribble/Trubek, 501) After all the world has experienced in technology, however, it is almost impossible to imagine life without the technology of writing. In ta... ...s about their project ideas I may have become more aware of other possibilities for this project. In the end I became aware that my final idea did not even fit in the definition of â€Å"natural technology,† it was all part of the learning experience of this project. Writing and technology are fascinating concepts when closely studied and understood. It seems as though they are connected in a way in which they are almost dependent upon each other for their existence. We could not have writing without technology, nor technology without writing. To find natural means of writing technology is a challenge and a humbling way of viewing technology and the great advancements that have been made in the world. Work Cited Tribble, Evelyn B., and Anne Trubek. Writing Material: Readings from Plato to the Digital Age. New York: Longman. 2003.

Migraines: A Complex Disorder Essay -- Headaches Medical Neurology Pap

Migraines: A Complex Disorder If I can only make it to my bed, I'll be fine. My head hurts terribly. I would do anything to stop the pain. I've taken three extra strength Tylenols and the pain hasn't diminished at all. My head is spinning. Ever so often, the world around me turns dim and then bright. I close my eyes. I need to lie down, but I am driving. I feel nauseous. The pain that started on one side of my head is spreading as it pulsates. I squeeze my head and rub my temples, but the pain remains. I wish for a lobotomy. I wish somebody could stop the pain. I'm home. I run to my room. I tie a rag tightly around my head. It doesn't help. I press my head against a wall. I feel like vomiting again. I know relief is coming soon. I pass out. I am a Migraineur, and have been ever since I can remember. Migraine headaches are a type of vascular headache that affects 28 million Americans, 75 percent of whom are women 1) "http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/migraineupdate.htm">National Institute of Health, a good source of general information on migraine headaches. Annually, migraines cost the American taxpayers $13 billion in missed work and reduced productivity 1) "http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/migraineupdate.htm">National Institute of Health, a good source of general information on migraine headaches. Migraines are not a disorder unique to overworked Americans. In fact, the World Health Organization identified migraine among the world's top 20 leading causes of disability name="2">2) "http://www.w-h-a.org/wha/info.asp">World Health Alliance, a source of current articles about migraine headaches. According to the World Health Organization, aside from the physiological exp... ...lth Alliance, a source of current articles about migraine headaches 3) "http://archneur.ama-assn.org/issues/v57n8/ffull/nhn8476.html">Archives of Neurology, provides a historical perspective on topics related to neurology (3) 4) "http://www.achnet.org/understanding/">American Council for Headache Education, provides information on all types of headaches 5) "http://www.wfubmc.edu/neurology/migweb2/introduc.htm#INTRODUCTION">Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, lecture notes of a professor at the medical school 6) "http://www.migraines.org/myth/">MAGNUM, a good site for individuals who suffer from migraine headaches 7) "http://www.intelihealth.com/">Intelihealth, a site sponsored by Harvard Medical School 8) "http://www.neurologychannel.com/migraine/">Neurology Channel, provides a comprehensive look at migraine headaches

Freedom of speech :: essays research papers

Do Americans take the First Amendment for granted, or use it, as a clutch to say what they feel is appropriate. The First Amendment states that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. (Siegel 3) But what is Freedom of Speech? It is our ability to say what we want, when we want and to whom we want? But there are even restrictions on what we want to say for example a person cannot yell fire in a crowded movie theater. Like all situations there will be persons to disagree? The past presidential election put the nation in an uproar, as do all elections. But, non as controversial as this one. In this election the issues that were addressed split the county in two, half of the country having liberal views and the other half having conservative views. That was mainly the focus of the entire campaign. What is being liberal or being conservative? Liberals favor gradual reform, especially political reforms that extend democracy, distribute wealth more evenly, and protect the personal freedom of the individual. On the other end of the spectrum, conservatives are in favor of preserving the status quo and traditional values and customs, and against abrupt change(msn. Encarta) This seems to make Americans look weak to the rest of the world. That we don’t even have a common ground on the issues of the nation . This great nation that is seen as the mother country to the rest of the world is spilt right down the middle with labels that divide people. And that’s where it really gets ugly. Will Americans ever put these labels aside and come together so that America can be a better place to live? By being a graduating senior looking at the nation as either being liberal or conservative has made me really take a look at myself and my beliefs on the issues .

Annotated Bibliography Essay

Bibliography Gastaldo, E. (n.d.). New on FBI’s Most Wanted. Retrieved from http://www.newser.com/story/169670/new-on-fbis-most-wanted-ex-usc-prof Walter Lee Williams faces charges of sexual exploitation of children. He taught anthropology, gender studies and history and now is one (police headquarter, 2013)of FBI’s 10 Most Wanted fugitives. Williams, 64, became the 500th name added to the list in its 63-year history. The extensive traveler and Fulbright Award winner is accused of sexually exploiting at least 10 children between ages 9 and 17 while abroad. Because of his status he has the means and access to children is what makes him dangerous man. Bibliography police headquarter. (2013, july 23). Sex crimes. Retrieved from http://www.kcmo.org/police/crime/sexcrimes/sexcrimes/index.htm Sex Crimes are about power and control and are often reported later because the victim feels scared or ashamed. Sex Crimes are one of the most under-reported crimes. The Sex Crimes Section handles all reported ADULT (17 years of age and older) sex crimes whose victims are heterosexual or same sex. These crimes include: Rape is sexual intercourse with another person by the use of forcible compulsion. Sexual Assault is sexual intercourse with another person knowing that the victim is unconscious, drugged, intoxicated or sleeping. Sexual Misconduct- is any form of sexual activity or sexual contact including harassment, which is unwanted that occurs as a result of intimidation, threat of force, use of force or other coercive behavior or which occurs without consent. Sodomy which is deviant sexual intercourse with another person by the use of forcible compulsion. Stalking which is a pattern of repeated, unwanted attention, harassment and contact. All these acts are forms of sexual crimes. Bibliography Lelis, L. (2012, January 7). Retrieved from Orlando Sentinel: http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-01-07/news/os-carol-sheridan-obituary-20120107_1_crime-victims-victim-compensation-and-assistance-crime-act Carol Lee Sheridan was among the first to serve as advocate for victims of crime the late 1970s. She worked with victims of crime, helping victims of rape or domestic abuse with their questions about the law-enforcement investigations and court cases. She was part of the first team for the Orange County Sheriff’s Office of what would be called victims’ advocates, Victims sometimes don’t know what to do and are often lost. When you’re traumatized and have lost your daughter to a heinous, you need guidance and information. Bibliography Matsota, O. (n.d.). Sex Crimes. Retrieved from Helping Human Trafficking Victims: http://ezinearticles.com/?Sex-Crimes:-Helping-Human-Trafficking-Victims&id=5656185 Human trafficking involves trafficking of human beings across borders. There are several ways a person can be trafficked. One is the by kidnapping and selling. A person may be deceived with a false promise for job and lured into crossing international border. There the person may be forced into forced slavery or indentured servitude. A person may accept prostitution due to lure of drugs. In USA for instance a minor (below 18 years) is considered as a trafficking victim, although no movement has taken place. This is in accordance to the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 Bibliography Noceda, K. (2013, February 19). Police. Retrieved from Victim in Hummer Mom’ Sex Crimes Target of Cyberbullying: http://livermore.patch.com/groups/police-and-fire/p/police-investigating-report- Hubbs a 44 year old woman, was recently released from prison after serving two and a half years behind bars for sexual relationships she had with two teen boys. The former Livermore resident is now back in jail after a suspected parole violation, according to court records. Hubbs violated terms of her parole when she was found with possession of pornography in Hayward, according to a KPIX report .Hubbs got the nickname â€Å"Hummer mom†Ã‚  because of the vehicle she drove around, sometimes with her victims accompanying her. Bibliography Reuters. (2013, July 19). Virginia: Charge Against Air Force Oficer. Retrieved from Alteredhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/19/us/virginia-charge-against-air-force-officer-is-altered.html? A charge of sexual battery against an Air Force officer was dropped on Thursday, and the prosecutor instead will pursue a charge of assault and battery. The officer, Lt. Col. Jeffrey Krusinski, was chief of the Air Force sexual assault prevention and response branch when he was arrested in May and accused of groping a woman in a parking lot. After a closer investigation of the facts and a review of the status of the case law, the more appropriate charge is the assault and battery, not the sexual battery charge,† said Theo Stamos, the prosecutor. She declined to comment about the evidence in the case. Bibliography Travis, A. (2013, January 10). One in Five Womaen Are Victims of SExual Offense. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/jan/10/sex-crimes-analysis-england-wales The first joint statistical overview of sexual offending in England and Wales by the Ministry of Justice, Home Office and Office of National Statistics confirms that only a very small proportion of sexual offences lead to a conviction. In the last three years court statistics show an average of 5,620 offenders convicted each year for all types of sexual offences, with 1,070 convicted for rape. The estimate that there are 473,000 victims of sexual offences every year, of whom 400,000 are women, is drawn from the Crime Survey for England and Wales. It estimates that there were 97,000 victims of the most serious sexual offences last year, of which there were around 69,000 female victims of rape. The analysis adds that 90% of such victims knew the perpetrator. Bibliography Ward, C. (2013, July 18). Scout Leader Accused of Sexual Assault at Wisconsin Camp. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/suburbs/glen_ellyn/chi-scout-leader-accused-of-sex-assault-at-wisconsin-camp 20130718,0,897229.story A Boy Scout leader from DuPage County has been charged with sexually assaulting a Scout at a Wisconsin camp according to Wisconsin law enforcement officials. Marquette County sheriff’s police identified the man as Jeffrey L. Borneman, 54, of the 22-W-000 block of Stratford Court in unincorporated DuPage County near Glen Ellyn. He was charged with sexual assault of a child under 16 years of age and was released after posting a $5,000 cash bond Thursday, Marquette County District Attorney Chad Hendee said. The assault is alleged to have taken place on July 5 at Camp Freeland Leslie, a Boy Scout facility near Oxford, about 25 miles from the Wisconsin Dells. Bibliography West, C., & M. (2013, March). Sexual Violence in the Lives of African American Women. Retrieved from http://www.nsvrc.org/publications/articles/sexual-violence-lives-african-american-women This Applied Research paper reviews the sociohistorical context of Black women’s sexual victimization, the characteristics of Black rape survivors and their experiences, and the risk factors that elevate Black women’s vulnerability to rape and consequences thereof. Culturally sensitive techniques to promote resilience are offered. The institutional pattern of rape was well established before the newly enslaved Africans reached the Americas. During the transatlantic voyage, crew members routinely raped and impregnated Black women. In preparation for sale, enslaved women were stripped naked and placed on auction blocks. African American women’s economic value. Bibliography Woo, J. (2013, June 18). South Korea Toughens SEx Crimes Law. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/06/18/south-korea-toughens-its-sex-crimes-law/ South Korea took a big step toward clearing legal hurdles in the fight against sex crimes against women and minors. The government has made more than 150 revisions to the current law related to sex crimes that will take effect on Wednesday. One of the biggest changes is the abolishment of a 60-year-old law under which a prosecutor can’t pursue a sexual assault case if a victim and an attacker reach an agreement on not taking legal action.  Critics have said the law often led to situations where attackers bully victims into dropping legal complaints. Works Cited Gastaldo, E. (n.d.). New on FBI’s Most Wanted. Retrieved from http://www.newser.com/story/169670/new-on-fbis-most-wanted-ex-usc-prof Lelis, L. (2012, January 7). Retrieved from Orlando Sentinel: http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-01-07/news/os-carol-sheridan-obituary-20120107_1_crime-victims-victim-compensation-and-assistance-crime-act Matsota, O. (n.d.). Sex Crimes. Retrieved from Helping Human Trafficking Victims: http://ezinearticles.com/?Sex-Crimes:-Helping-Human-Trafficking-Victims&id=5656185 Noceda, K. (2013, February 19). Police. Retrieved from Victim in Hummer Mom’ Sex Crimes Target of Cyberbullying: http://livermore.patch.com/groups/police-and-fire/p/police-investigating-report-of-cyber-bullying-to-victb3d8e9589b police headquarter. (2013, july 23). Sex crimes. Retrieved from http://www.kcmo.org/police/crime/sexcrimes/sexcrimes/index.htm Reuters. (2013, July 19). Virginia: Charge Against Air Force Oficer. Retrieved from Alteredhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/ 07/19/us/virginia-charge-against-air-force-officer-is-altered.html? Travis, A. (2013, January 10). One in Five Womaen Are Victims of SExual Offense. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/jan/10/sex-crimes-analysis-england-wales Ward, C. (2013, July 18). Scout Leader Accused of Sexual Assault at Wisconsin Camp. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/suburbs/glen_ellyn/chi-scout-leader-accused-of-sex-assault-at-wisconsin-camp-20130718,0,897229.story West, C., & M. (2013, March). Sexual Violence in the Lives of African American Women. Retrieved from http://www.nsvrc.org/publications/articles/sexual-violence-lives-african-american-women Woo, J. (2013, June 18). South Korea Toughens SEx Crimes Law. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/06/18/south-korea-toughens-its-sex-crimes-law/

Cesar’s Mourning Essay

The book subject of this paper is the classical literary work of Oscar Hijuelos titled: â€Å"Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love†. The book revolves around the lives of two musically inclined brothers who migrated to America from Cuba. The brothers were Nestor and Cesar. As found in the book’s title the central theme was â€Å"love†. The book has expressed different forms of love for different kinds of relationships. It expressed unconditional love for a brother, like what Cesar and Nestor had for each other. It expressed love for the woman you married, like how Nestor felt for Dolores. It expressed love for a woman you know you can never have, like how Cesar felt for Dolores or how Nestor felt for Maria. These interplay of emotions provided for the central theme of the book which also made way for the resolution of the question why Cesar can’t mourn for Nestor. This paper will seek to answer such question through the use of a structured argument. In order to be able to support its contention that Cesar cannot truly mourn for Nestor for two reasons: because unconsciously or consciously he knew he was better of without Nestor and because Cesar was responsible for making Nestor unhappy (Thesis Statement). The line of thinking pursued by this paper may be dark and offensive to some. Still an open mind will find that when they look closer this contention is in fact meritorious. Cesar cannot truly mourn for Nestor. One cannot truly mourn for someone else if he knows that he is better off without him. This is easy to see. Imagine the life of Cesar if Nestor had died. The woman he loved, Dolores, will be his for the taking. He would no longer have to deal with pulling the weight of a younger brother who had no ambition but to open a bar and come back to his Maria. True that the book never expressed that Cesar felt like this. However, a careful look and examination of the story itself will show us that this line of argument is very much tenable. The loss of someone when beneficial to us denies us from the emotion of mourning. It is true that when one experiences joy when another one passes away is devious and callous. However not mourning for someone is not necessarily devious and callous. Let us presuppose that Cesar was sad that Nestor passed away. He may indeed be sad that the brother he loved so much passed away. But can he mourn for him? No, because consciously or unconsciously he knew that the death of Cesar would benefit him. This is a sadistic and cruel interpretation of the emotions of Cesar. Sadistic and cruel it may be but tenable and meritorious it still is. One of the statements in the book that professed this fact was: â€Å"The deepest urge in human nature is the desire to be important to be great the rare individual who satisfies this angle will hold people in the palm of his hand. So even the undertaker will regret his death† (Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, Hijuelos) The second reason why Cesar cannot truly mourn for Nestor is the fact that Cesar was the reason why Nestor ended up that way. Cesar was very ambitious and for everything he wanted to do he needed Nestor to be there. On the other hand Nestor was more laid back and simple. Nestor only dreamt of a simple life a small bar in Cuba would have been enough for him. However Cesar’s ambition was insatiable. Cesar’s insatiable ambition caused Nestor’s unhappiness. In the book to quote Cesar said: â€Å"There’s no dream, it’s our life† (Mambo Kings Plays Songs of Love, Hijuelos). This is one of the reasons why Cesar cannot truly mourn for Nestor. Cesar cannot truly mourn for Nestor because he knew that Nestor was not happy. Cesar knew that when Nestor died his life was empty and incomplete. Considering this fact is it possible for Cesar to feel mourning for Nestor? No, because the emotion that lingered with Cesar on Nestor’s death could not have been mourning. The emotion that lingered with Cesar is guilt and not mourning. He felt guilty for driving his brother to unhappiness. He felt guilty for leading his brother to a life his brother never wanted. Carrying these kinds of emotions will not allow us to mourn for anyone. If anything this kind of guilt will drive us to anger for ourselves. However these kinds of emotions will not elicit mourning. Mourning is a word we often carelessly use to describe someone’s feeling when someone important to them passes. However, as argued and contended by this paper just because someone we love dies does not necessarily imply that the emotion we feel is mourning. There are a lot of other emotions one may possess when someone passes away. More often the emotion that we feel is not mourning. This argument however does not devoid or considers that one does not feel mourning when someone close to them dies. On the contrary it submits that mourning is indeed an emotion felt by anyone of us for the loss of someone but does not necessarily apply for all cases. The story of Cesar and Nestor is one example where a brother cannot truly mourn for another because of envy and guilt. The clearest expression of guilt instead of mourning was when Cesar said: â€Å"I would trade places with him right now, if I could.. † (Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, Hijuelos) Works Cited Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, Oscar Hijuelos